A symptomatic central line-associated bloodstream infections in children implanted with long term indwelling central venous catheters in a teaching hospital, Sri Lanka J. A. A. S. Jayaweera1,2* and D. Sivakumar1

Abstract

Background: Indwelling central venous catheters (CVC) are used to provide long term hemodialysis. The commonest and the severe complication of CVC is the central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI). This study was done to assess the etiology and infectious complications of CVC in children on long term hemodialysis.

Methods: Children newly undergoing hemodialysis and having indwelling CVC were included. They were followed up to a period of 2-years to assess infectious complications. Catheter bundle care approach was employed to prevent infections and other complications. Automated culture from the central catheter and peripheral vein and 2D echocardiography were done in each hemodialysis. Serial procalcitonin (PCT) was measured. Differential time of positivity (DTP) was used to detect CLABSI. During homestay in weekly telephone conversations were done to assess features of infection, and whenever having, we have asked to admit to the tertiary care unit. Logistic regression was performed, and the significant outcome variable was considered following multivariable analysis as a risk factor.

Results: Blood cultures were positive in 1090 (74.5%) out of 1462 children. According to DTP, 410 (28%) were having CLABSI, while 520 (35.6%) were having bacteremia without CLABSI. Out of 410 CLABSI patients, 79 (19.2%) were asymptomatic. Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp. (CoNS) bacteremia was significantly associated with asymptomatic CLABSI. Right-sided infective endocarditis (RS-IE) was significantly associated with asymptomatic CLABSI and asymptomatic bacteremia without CLABSI. CoNS was associated significantly in RS-IE following asymptomatic CLABSI and asymptomatic bacteremia. PCT was in asymptomatic CLABSI was 1.8 ± 0.9 ng/mL while in symptomatic CLABSI was 11.3 ± 2.5 ng/ml (P = 0.02). CoNS bloodstream infection, tunneled CVC, peripherally inserted central catheter, femoral site, the number of line days > 90, receipt of vancomycin, meropenem, or linezolid in the 5 days before CLABSI diagnosis and recurrent bacteremia were risk factors for asymptomatic CLABSI.

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* Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] 1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Microbiology, Saliyapura, Sri Lanka 2Teaching Hospital Kandy, Kandy, Sri Lanka

Jayaweera and Sivakumar BMC Infectious Diseases (2020) 20:457 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-020-05190-5

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Conclusions: Asymptomatic CLABSI could be a rare occurrence. CoNS was predominantly isolated in patients with asymptomatic CLABSI. RS- IE is a well-known complication in long term indwelling CVC. CoNS was significantly associated with RS-IE following asymptomatic CLABSI. Regular procalcitonin, microbiological, and imaging studies would be essential to detect infectious complications in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients implanted with long term indwelling CVCs.

Keywords: Healthcare-associated infections, Central line-associated bloodstream infection, Asymptomatic bacteremia, Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp., And right sided-infective endocarditis

Background Long-term central venous catheter (CVC) is an invasive device that used in children with chronic renal failure. The device resides in a large central vein, usually the su- perior vena cava. CVC is used for the administration of fluids, medications, blood products, collection of blood, and hemodialysis (HD) [1]. The most common and se- vere complication associated with CVC is central line- associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) [1, 2]. CLABSI rates vary widely, and infection rates depend on

device type and patient population [2]. A study conducted in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) in United State of America (USA) from 2006 to 2007 reported that incidence of CLABSI was 3.1 per 1000 central line-days [3]. Another study revealed that incidence was 4.1 per 1.000 central line- days in third world countries [4]. Children with haemopoi- etic stem cell transplantation, prevalence of CLABSI was 5.3 per 1000 central-line days and most commonly identi- fied organism was Staphylococcus epidermidis [5]. The etiology and the incidence of Chronic Kidney Dis-

ease (CKD) could vary with the age [6]. The prevalence of CKD stage II or lower in children is approximately 18.5– 58.3 per million [7]. Compared to adults, in children CKD prevalence is much less but underreporting would mask the true prevalence [8]. In children, structural defects and obstructive uropathy are common before age 5 while her- editary and acquired kidney diseases are common in 5 to 15 years. CKD requires therapeutic measures [9]. When the glomerular filtration rate is below 15 ml/min/1.73 m2, renal replacement therapy such as peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, or kidney transplantation is indicated [10]. Bacteremia can occur spontaneously following tissue in-

fection, wound care, surgical procedure, and the use of in- dwelling intravascular catheters [11]. Bacteremia can be symptomatic or asymptomatic. Bacteremia would lead to develop deep seated abscesses, pneumonia, meningitis, and infective endocarditis especially in patients with valvu- lar heart abnormalities [12]. Transient bacteremia is often asymptomatic, but occasionally can develop fever [13]. The development of symptoms usually suggests more severe infections and risk for sepsis or septic shock would be high [11, 14]. CLABSI often leads to continuous bacteremia. This study was conducted to assess the

etiology and infectious complications of central line- associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) in children on long term HD.

Methods This was a follow up study. The study was conducted at a pediatric unit in a tertiary care hospital, Sri Lanka, from January-2014 to December-2016. Children (2 years to 12 years) who are newly undergoing hemodialysis and having an indwelling central venous line were included and followed up. They were followed up to 2 years to as- sess any of the infectious complications. Since in all the patients HD was newly initiated, they were kept > 48 h in the unit. Once patient becomes stable (creatinine de- cline and reaches a steady level) and no sign of infection they were discharged. We have screened occurrence of CLABSI following after 48 h of insertion of CVC. Catheter bundle care approach was employed at the

time of insertion and maintenance to prevent infections and other complications [15]. In each time before initiat- ing HD, blood (includes asymptomatic patients) was taken from the central line and peripheral site for cul- ture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST). Also, when the patient presented with fever, blood was taken from the central line and peripheral site for culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST). Every occa- sion, the same volume of blood was collected under ster- ile conditions, and BACTEC semi-automated flat form was used for culture. Differential time positivity (DTP) was used to detect CLABSI, bacteremia, central line colonization, and contamination [15, 16]. At day 3 (72 h following initial blood culture), a peripheral blood cul- ture was done to assess the clearance following Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Gram staining was performed from all flagged positive

BACTEC bottles and inoculated onto blood (10% CO2), MacConkey (room air), and chocolate agar (10% CO2) to detect the microbial etiology. The inoculated plates were incubated at 35 °C in 10% CO2 to enable bacterial colonies to develop [17]. Positive culture isolates were identified using appropriate identification methods, in- cluding morphology of colonies, Gram-stain, and an in- house set of biochemical tests and further confirmed

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using Rapid 20 E (Enterobacteriaceae), NE (Non-Entero- bacteriaceae) and S (Staphylococcus) semi-automated identification system. Serial procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein

(CRP) were done to assess the clinical status and the re- sponse to the antimicrobial treatment. Also, 2D echocar- diography was done in every patient, and in patients with endocarditis serially, it was done to assess the pro- gress/ clinical response. During homestay in weekly tele- phone conversations were done to assess infectious complications and, if present, asked to admit as soon as possible to the tertiary care facility.

Definitions CLABSI The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) definitions were used to diagnose CLABSI [18].

Bacteremia without line infection The quantitative blood cultures were obtained from the CVC and peripheral vein in same time and isolation of the same pathogen from both cultures with time to positive culture (< 2 h) in the CVC and peripheral sample [15, 16]. Central line colonizer Instances where CVC blood culture is positive but the percutaneous blood culture remained negative indicate colonization of the catheter rather than CRBSI. This is especially applicable to organisms like gram-negative rod or enterococcus [15, 16]. Asymptomatic bacteremia Instances where the two peripheral blood culture were remained positive for same organism but subject remains without having fever or any other sign/symptom [17]. Exit site infection Signs of inflammation is limited to catheter exit site (typically < 2 cm) and having a wound swab/ wound se- cretion culture positivity [17, 18]. Tunnel infection Inflammation extending more than 2 cm from exit site and associated with pain and tenderness along the sub- cutaneous track and having a wound swab/ wound se- cretion culture positivity [18]. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing The antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by the disc diffusion test based on Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines (M100s27) [19]. The following antimicrobial agents were tested: ampicillin (30 ?g), amikacin (30 ?g), Ciprofloxacin (5 ?g), levofloxacin (5 ?g), Trimethoprim/ sulfamethoxazole (1.25/23.25 ?g), gentamicin (10 ?g), Vancomycin (30 ?g) and Linezolid (30 ?g). Statistical analysis Data obtained were double entered into a spreadsheet database prepared with Microsoft Excel and compared and cleaned for wrong entries. Statistical analysis was done using SAS version 9.1 [20]. The association of each of the categorical variables with the response variable was assessed by Chi-square test. Further, logistic regres- sion was performed, and variables showing statistically significant (p < 0.05) association in univariate analysis with the outcome variable were considered following multivariate analysis as a risk factor. Further, 2 way- ANOVA was performed to assess the significance of PCT between symptomatic and asymptomatic CLABSI. Continuous variables were expressed as a measure of central tendency. Results Over the 3 years, 1462 children (2 to 12 years of age) who are newly undergoing long-term HD were included. The mean age of the participant was 7.82 ± 2.62 years. Children with congenital malformations and obstructive uropathy requiring HD was significant among children below the age of 5 years (n = 642, mean age 2.82 ± 1.43 years, p = 0.03) while hereditary kidney diseases requir- ing HD was significant in the age group of 5 to 12 years (n = 822, mean age 8.82 ± 1.22, p = 0.01). Blood culture results Blood cultures were positive in 1090 (74.5%) out of 1462 children on long term HD. According to differential time positivity, 410 (28%) were having CLABSI while 520 (35.6%) were having bacteremia without CLABSI, and 160 (11%) were having central venous line colo- nizers. Remaining 372 (25.4%) was culture negative. CLABSI Out of 410 CLABSI patients 331 (80.7%) were symptom- atic. They were presented with fever (n = 331), malaise (n = 331), and 58 (17.5%) were septic (fever, tachypnoea, tachy- cardic, PCT > 0.5 with serum lactate > 4 mmol/L) on ad- mission. Methicillin sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) was the commonest etiology in symptomatic CLABSI and it was isolated in 212 (64.7%, p = 0.02) pa- tients. Candida albicans (n = 17,4.5%) C. parapsilosis (n = 10, 3.1%) and Gram negatives [multi-drug resistant Klebsi- ella pneumoniae (n = 10, 3.1%) Escherichia coli (n = 6, 1.5%) and Citrobacter frundii (n = 3, 0.75%)] were also isolated. Out of 410 CLABSI patients 79 (19.3%) were asymp-

tomatic. Coagulase negative staphylococcus sp. [S. epi- dermidis (n = 54, 68.4%), S. hemolyticus (n = 6, 7.7%), S. schleiferi (n = 5, 6.4%), S. lugdunensis (n = 5, 6.4%) (p =

Jayaweera and Sivakumar BMC Infectious Diseases (2020) 20:457 Page 3 of 10

0.03)] was the commonest etiology for asymptomatic CLABSI (Fig. 1). Recurrent bacteremia was detected in both symptom-

atic (n = 98, 23.9%, P = 0.02) and asymptomatic CLABSI groups while it was significant in the former. MSSA was the most frequent etiology in recurrent symptomatic CLABSI, and it was isolated in 78 (79.5%, p = 0.01) patients.

Bacteremia without CLABSI Out of 520 bacteremic patients 398 (76.5%) were symp- tomatic. They were presented with fever (n = 398), mal- aise (n = 398), cough (n = 90), difficulty in breathing (n = 88), dysuria (n = 48), backache (n = 22), acute abdomen (n = 10), alteration of consciousness (n = 8), and 68 (17.1%) were septic (fever, tachypnoea, tachycardic, PCT > 0.5 with serum lactate > 4 mmol/L) on admission. Methicillin sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) was the common- est etiology and was isolated in 245 (61.5%, p = 0.03) pa- tients. Methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in 42 (10.5%) patients while coagulase negative staphylococcus sp.(45, 11.3%) [S. epidermidis (n = 27,6.8%), S. hemolyti- cus (n = 18, 4.5%))], E. fecalis (n = 8, 2%), E. faceum (n = 4, 1%), Candida albicans (n = 8,2%) C. parapsilosis (n = 8, 2%), C. tropicalis (n = 7,2%) and K. pneumoniae (n = 10, 2.5%) E. coli (n = 16, 4%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 8, 4%), and C. frundii (n = 6, 3%) was also isolated. Out of 520 bacteremic patients 122 (23.4%) were asymp-

tomatic. Coagulase negative staphylococcus sp. [S. epider- midis (n = 86, 70.5%), S. hemolyticus (n = 14, 11.4%), S. schleiferi (n = 6, 5%), S. lugdunensis (n = 3, 2.5%) (p = 0.01)] was the commonest etiology for asymptomatic bacteremic and C. parapsilosis (n = 3, 2.5%), C. albicans (n = 3, 2.5%) MSSA (n = 3, 2.5%) MRSA (1,0.8%), Escheri- chia coli (n = 3, 2.5%) was also isolated (Fig. 2).

Recurrent bacteremia was detected in both symptom- atic (n = 78, 19.6%, P = 0.04) and asymptomatic groups while it was significant in the former. MSSA was the most frequent etiology in recurrent symptomatic bacteremia, and it was isolated in 58 (74.3%, p = 0.03) patients.

Venous catheter colonizer (VCC) Out of 160 VCC, coagulase negative Staphylococcus sp. [S. epidermidis (n = 86, 53.7%), S. hemolyticus (n = 16, 10%), S. schleiferi (n = 8, 5%), S. lugdunensis (n = 4, 2.5%) (p = 0.01)] was the commonest while C. parapsilosis (n = 12, 7.5%), C. albicans (n = 8, 5%), MSSA (n = 8, 5%) MRSA (4,2.5%), Escherichia coli (n = 4, 2.5%), Acineto- bacter bahumanii (n = 4, 2.5%), C. frundii (n = 4, 2.5%) and P. aeruginosa (n = 4, 2.5%) was also isolated. In all patients with bacteremia, procalcitonin was ele-

vated (> 0.5 ng/ml). PCT was in asymptomatic CLABSI was 1.8 ± 0.9 while in symptomatic CLABSI was 11.3 ± 2.5 (p = 0.01).

Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolated microbes from asymptomatic and symptomatic CLABSI Compared to S. epidermidis isolates following symptom- atic CLABSI, S. epidermidis isolates following asymp- tomatic CLABSI were having significant resistance to oxacillin, cefoxitin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, Tri- methoprim/ sulfamethoxazole, Amikacin, gentamicin, erythromycin, and clindamycin while all were susceptible to vancomycin, linezolid, and tigecycline (Table 1).

Other infective complications Central venous catheter exit site (n = 98, 6.7%) and tunnel infections (n = 70, 4.8%) were detected in long term in- dwelling venous catheters. Exit site infection was observed 7.5 ± 6.25 months, and tunnel infection was observed 11 ±

Fig. 1 Microbial etiology in symptomatic and symptomatic patients with central line-associated bloodstream infections. MSSA- Methicillin- sensitive S. aureus, MRSA- Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, CoNS- Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp.

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2.75 months following the insertion of a venous catheter. Further, venous catheter blockage was detected in 88 (6%), and in all, including exit and tunnel infections cath- eter, revisal was done to minimize systemic infections. The blockage was observed 0.82 ± 0.43 years following the insertion of a central venous catheter. Right sided infective endocarditis (IE) was detected in

122 (8.3%) patients and was observed 8.6 ± 3 months fol- lowing insertion of venous catheter. It was detected in CLABSI symptomatic (n = 29, 24.5%), CLABSI asymp- tomatic (n = 42, 34.5%), symptomatic (n = 14, 11.5%) and

asymptomatic bacteremic (n = 36, 29.5%) patients and is significant in asymptomatic CLABSI and asymptomatic bacteremic patients (Table 2). Further, catheter tip endocarditis (n = 88, 6%) and left

sided IE (n = 31, 2.1%) was detected in all above men- tioned groups. Catheter tip endocarditis was observed 6.25 ± 2.9 months following insertion of venous catheter and it was significantly detected in asymptomatic bacteremic (without CLABSI) (n = 48, 54.5%, p = 0.03) and non bacteremic children (n = 39, 44.3%, p = 0.04). Coagulase negative Staphylococcus sp.[s. epidermidis

Fig. 2 Microbial etiology in symptomatic and symptomatic bacteremic patients. MSSA- Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus, MRSA- Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, CoNS- Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp.

Table 1 Antimicrobial susceptibility profile of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp. (CoNS) isolates in asymptomatic and symptomatic central line-associated bloodstream infections

Antibiotic CLABSI P value

Symptomatic- CoNS Asymptomatic- CoNS

S. epidermidis (n = 10)

S. hemolyticus (n = 6)

S. epidermidis (n = 54)

S. hemolyticus (n = 6)

S. schleiferi (n = 5)

S. lugdunensis (n = 5)

Ampicillin (30 ?g) 2 (20%) 1 (17%) 47 (87.3%) * 6 (100%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03*

Cefoxitin (30 ?g) 2 (20%) 1 (17%) 45 (85.7%) ** 6 (100%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.02**

Oxacillin 2 (20%) 1 (17%) 45 (85.7%) *** 6 (100%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03***

Ciprofloxacin (5 ?g) 1 (10%) 1 (17%) 45 (85.7%) ? 4 (67%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03?

Levofloxacin (5 ?g) 2 (20%) 1 (17%) 45 (85.7%) ? 4 (67%) 4 (80%) 5 (100%) 0.03?

Trimethoprim/ sulfamethoxazole (1.25/23.25 ?g)

1 (10%) 1 (17%) 42 (79.3%) 4 (67%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03

Amikacin (30 ?g) 3 (30) 1 (17%) 42 (79.3%) 4 (67%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03

Gentamicin (10 ?g) 2 (20) 1 (17%) 42 (79.3%) 4 (67%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03

Erythromycin (30 ?g) 2 (20) 1 (17%) 42 (79.3%) 4 (67%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03

Clindamycin (30 ?g) 2 (20) 1 (17%) 42 (79.3%) 4 (67%) 5 (100%) 5 (100%) 0.03

vancomycin 0 0 0 0 0 0 –

Linezolid 0 0 0 0 0 0 –

Tigecycline 0 0 0 0 0 0 –

P < 0.05 taken as significant * Ampicillin resistance is significantly low in S. epidermidis; ** Cefoxitin resistance is significantly low in S. epidermidis; *** Oxacillin resistance is significantly low in S. epidermidis; ? Ciprofloxacin resistance is significantly low in S. epidermidis; ? Levofloxacin resistance is significantly low in S. epidermidis Jayaweera and Sivakumar BMC Infectious Diseases (2020) 20:457 Page 5 of 10 (n = 18, 37.5%), S. hemolyticus (n = 12, 25%), S. schleiferi (n = 6, 12.5%), S. lugdunensis (n = 3, 6.25%) (p = 0.01)] was the commonest while C. parapsilosis (n = 4, 8.3%), C. albicans (n = 3, 6.25%), MSSA (n = 1, 1.1%) and MRSA (n = 1, 1.1%) also isolated from the blood cultures. Patients with left sided IE was observed 0.42 ± 0.34 years following insertion of venous catheter and it was detected in symptomatic bacteremic (n = 19, 61.2%, p = 0.03) and symptomatic CLABSI children (n = 12, 38.7%, p = 0.04). MRSA in 12 (38.7%), MSSA (n = 10, 34%), E. fecalis (n = 3, 10%), E. faceum (n = 3, 10%), C. albicans (n = 2, 6.7%) and C. parapsilosis (n = 1, 3.3%) was de- tected in patients with left sided IE. Following univariate analysis, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp., tunneled central venous catheter, PICC, femoral site, a number of line-days > 90, receipt of vanco- mycin, meropenem or linezolid in the 5 days before obtain- ing blood cultures and recurrent bacteremia was significantly associated with increased risk of asymptomatic CLABSI. Further, receipt of vancomycin, meropenem, or li- nezolid in the 5 days before obtaining blood cultures was significantly associated with non-bacteremia (Table 3). According to multivariate analysis coagulase negative

staphylococcus sp. blood stream infection (OR: 7.6, 95% CI: 6.5–8.3, P = 0.03), having tunneled CVC (OR: 4.4, 95% CI: 3.8–4.9, P = 0.03), peripherally inserted central catheter (OR: 4.9, 95% CI: 3.9–6.2, P = 0.02), femoral site (OR: 3.7, 95% CI: 2.8–4.3, P = 0.01), number of line days > 90 (OR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.3–4.0, P = 0.02), receipt of vancomycin, meropenem or linezolid in the 5 days prior

to CLABSI diagnosis (OR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.3–4.0, P = 0.02) and recurrent bacteremia (OR: 8.7, 95% CI: 7.8–9.3, P = 0.01) were associated with asymptomatic CLABSI in pa- tients with long term hemodialysis (Table 4).

Discussion CVCs are not without risk and following placement it can develop multiple complications. Significant morbidity, mortality can result following complications and can cause a significant burden leading to high expenditure, pro- longed hospitalization, and poor quality of life [21–23]. To our knowledge, this is the first report of asymp-

tomatic CLABSI in patients who are undergoing long term HD. Transient asymptomatic bacteremia is a known phenomenon, while CLABSI is often symptom- atic and followed with continuous bacteremia [5, 6]. Contrary, asymptomatic CLABSI could be a rare occur- rence, and we were able to explore it following screening blood cultures in every patient before each HD. CoNS was predominantly isolated in patients with asymptom- atic CLABSI, while MSSA was predominantly isolated in patients with symptomatic CLABSI. Zierdt in 1983 has described that the intermittent or transient or asymp- tomatic S. epidermidis bacteremia can frequently occur inpatients and as well as in healthy humans [24]. Right-sided IE is a well-known complication following

long term indwelling CVCs [15]. Often is diagnosed with screening echocardiography following MSSA, MRSA bacteremia or candidemia, and instances where having an inadequate response following appropriate antimicro- bials in other bacteremia (CoNS, Enterococcus sp., any of

Table 2 The microbial etiology for right-sided infective endocarditis in symptomatic and asymptomatic central line-associated bloodstream infections and bacteremia without central line infection patients

Isolated microbes

Right sided infective endocarditis (n = 122, 8.3%) P value

CLABSI (72, 59%) Bacteremia without CLABSI (50, 41%)

Symptomatic (n = 30, 24.5%) Asymptomatic (n = 42, 34.5%) Symptomatic (n = 14, 11.5%) Asymptomatic (n = 36, 29.5%) 0.03

MSSA 12** 13** 4 6 0.03**

MRSA 12£ 13£ 7£ 7 0.02£

CoNS 2 14? 1 16? 0.02?

S. epidermidis 1 6 – 9 0.07

S. hemolyticus 1 1 1 2 0.08

S. schleiferi – 1 – 4 0.07

S. lugdunensis – 1 – 1 0.07

Enterococcus sp. 2 1 – 1 0.08

C. albicans 3 1 1 2 0.07

C. parapsilosis 1 1 1 4 0.08

CLABSI central line-associated bloodstream infections, MSSA Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus, MRSA Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, CoNS Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp. P < 0.05 taken as significant ** MSSA was associated significantly in symptomatic and asymptomatic CLABSI, £MRSA was associated significantly in right sided IE following symptomatic, asymptomatic CLABSI and symptomatic bacteremic without CLABSI and ? CoNS was associated significantly in right sided IE following asymptomatic CLABSI and asymptomatic bacteremic without CLABSI Jayaweera and Sivakumar BMC Infectious Diseases (2020) 20:457 Page 6 of 10 significant bacteremia) [22–25]. In here, CoNS was sig- nificantly associated with right-sided IE following asymptomatic CLABSI and asymptomatic bacteremia without CLABSI patients. Kendirli et al. in 2017 found that S. epidermidis was commonly identified in children with CLABSI [26]. Another study revealed that S. aureus was the most common organism responsible for right sided IE and IE in tricuspid valve develop more frequently in heroin users [27]. Further, MSSA or MRSA, Streptococci spp. or Enterococci spp. is respon- sible for acute IE [28]. In here, MSSA was associated sig- nificantly following right sided-IE in symptomatic and asymptomatic CLABSI patients while MRSA was associ- ated significantly in right-sided IE following symptom- atic, asymptomatic CLABSI and symptomatic bacteremia without CLABSI patients. The above scenarios were Table 3 Univariate analysis of risk factors for asymptomatic central line-associated bloodstream infections in children on hemodialysis Variables CLABSI (n = 410) Non- bacteremics Odds ratio (95% CI) Symptomatic Odds ratio (95% CI) Asymptomatic Odds ratio (95% CI) Microbial etiology MSSA 2.2 (1.1–3.9) MRSA 2.4 (1.9–3.1) CoNS 3.4 (2.9–3.8) Female sex – – Type of CVC Tunneled 2.7 (1.8–4.3) Non-tunneled – – – Site of insertion Internal jugular – – – PICC 2.9 (1.9–4.2) Subclavian – – – Femoral 2.7 (1.8–4.3) Number of line-days > 90 2.3 (1.3–4.0)

Duration of hospital stay – – –

Receipt of vancomycin, meropenem or linezolid in the 5 days prior to obtaining blood cultures

3.7 (2.8–4.6) 4.7 (3.8– 5.3)

No. of times intravenous medications given in the prior day (mean ± SD) – – –

Recurrent bacteremia 2.7 (1.8–4.3)

All significant (P < 0.05) values are displayed with the odds ratio CLABSI central line-associated bloodstream infections, MSSA Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus, MRSA Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, CoNS Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp., CVC central venous catheter, PICC peripherally inserted central catheter, SD standard deviation and CI confidence interval Table 4 Multivariate analysis of risk factors for asymptomatic central line-associated bloodstream infections in children on hemodialysis Variables Asymptomatic CLABSI Odds ratio (95% CI) P value CoNS bloodstream infection 7.6 (6.5–8.3) 0.01 Tunneled-CVC 4.4 (3.8–4.9) 0.03 Site of insertion -PICC 4.9 (3.9–6.2) 0.02 Site of insertion -Femoral 3.7 (2.8–4.3) 0.01 Number of line-days > 90 2.1 (1.3–4.0) 0.02

Receipt of vancomycin, meropenem or linezolid in the 5 days prior to CLABSI diagnosis 3.7 (2.8–4.6) 0.01

Recurrent bacteremia 8.7 (7.8–9.3) 0.01

CLABSI central line-associated bloodstream infections, MSSA Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus, MRSA Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, CoNS Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp., CVC central venous catheter, PICC peripherally inserted central catheter and CI- confidence interval P < 0.05 taken as significant Jayaweera and Sivakumar BMC Infectious Diseases (2020) 20:457 Page 7 of 10 detected as an outcome of screening blood cultures and echocardiography. Application of such practice in busy and resource-limited clinical setup needs to be validated. Contrast to S. epidermidis following symptomatic CLABSI, S. epidermidis following asymptomatic CLABSI had significant antimicrobial resistance. It could be an out- come following the segregation of multiple genetic seg- ments in microbial DNA. Since bacterial genetic capacity is often constant, this would reduce the virulence capacity. Various studies have shown that the genetic perturbations responsible for antibiotic resistance modulate bacterial biol- ogy and fitness [29]. In many cases, … Read more Applied Sciences Architecture and Design Biology Business & Finance Chemistry Computer Science Geography Geology Education Engineering English Environmental science Spanish Government History Human Resource Management Information Systems Law Literature Mathematics Nursing Physics Political Science Psychology Reading Science Social Science Home Homework Answers Blog Archive Tags Reviews Contact twitterfacebook Copyright © 2021 SweetStudy.com